The Development of Sustainable Energy Sources in the United States Essay

The Development of Sustainable Energy Sources in the United States - Essay Example Glaciers have been melting and shrinking, weather patterns are changing, sea levels and rising, mosquitoes are spreading and corals are dying from the acidification and warming of the oceans and seas (Hansen et al., 2008, p16). According to Hansen et al. (2008), the world needs to lower the carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere by 350 ppm or lower in order to avoid further- and possibly catastrophic effects of climate change (p16). While other people may see such re-orientation of the power industry as an unnecessary and expensive push, I say that it is about time that the United States does its share in the global effort to mitigate climate change and its effects. In fact, such step is, from the global political perspective, long overdue. The United States has consistently avoided signing binding treaties on climate change mitigation. There is a certain level of global consensus, evident in the Kyoto Protocol, that developed nations must bear a heavier responsibility in reducing their greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) as a result of more than a century of industrial activity. However, the United States (U.S.), as major world superpower refused to ratify the Kyoto Protocol, an international agreement which binded 37 industrialized countries and the European community in reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in 2005. In the Copenhagen Accord, the U.S. only committed a 4% reduction of GHGs from 1990 levels by 202 0 (Biello, 2010, paragraph 1) a targeted way below the commitment of other countries such as China, Brazil and the European Union (paragraph 3). From a business- and rational economic perspective, investing in the development of new energy sources and abandoning oil reserves in the Gulf Coast and in Alaska may easily be seen as wasteful, and even risky. However, given the fact that fossil fuels are finite resources, the country has no choice but to develop renewable energy sources that could replace existing energy sources before the latter  totally becomes depleted.  

Using APA Style Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Using APA Style - Assignment Example ticular work would be helpful to me in future research because libraries could, ideally, play a huge part in alleviating issues of illiteracy and contribute to helping to close that achievement gap. Since much of my focus is in relation to public library systems this piece fits in nicely to see how libraries could make a difference and be perceived as a contributing service. This article was essentially a review of the reports of how the public libraries in England scored in a government endorsed inspection reports. It was used to determine if the policies implemented have benefited, hindered, or had no effect on the public libraries. It gives a clear listing of what qualifies a particular library as a good library, as well as, in turn, an understanding of what identifies a bad one.(Higgins, 2005) This article is interesting because it explains how other countries conduct their policies and administrations as it relates to the quality of their public libraries. What others attempt can be a wonderful indicator of what you might wish to emulate, or perhaps not ever duplicate. This book discusses how there are some unique changes occurring in the fields of public policy and administration. In this case it is a trend toward modern progressive values into public administration. The work focuses on areas including description of progressive values, the different ideologies behind those values, and how to evaluate the existing policies and make beneficial and constructive changes.(Box, 2008) I consider this a potentially valuable source, primarily, because it covers issues that may be wholly relevant to future policies and the individuals who make them. That perspective is quite relevant and inevitably useful to me in further

Individual Development Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Individual Development Paper - Essay Example The ability to understand what the other is going through helps in all the segments of our waking life and livelihood like management, sales, marriage and parenthood. Strengthening this aspect of my emotional intelligence would really mean that I have already taken care of the earlier three aspects of emotional intelligence. Goleman opines that empathy builds on self-awareness. People who cannot read their own emotions are alexithymic, they are confused and bewildered about their own and other peoples' feelings. I suspect that I am a bit of an alexithymic myself. Once during my adolescence my house was flooded, I remember that I did not react at all and continued doing whatever I was doing instead of panicking and controlling the situation. At that time I thought I was rather cool, but now I realize that I was too detached and cold (not cool as I had earlier thought). Had I been empathetic I would have perhaps cried yet swung into action for either throwing out the water or stemming the source. This cold trait has surfaced time and again in my dealing with my business employees as well. I am not able to comprehend when they drop work due to personal emergency. It seems to me that work has less priority in their life than their domestic troubles. I am able to now understand why my subordinates find it difficult to confide in me, why I am usually am the last to know about the problems brewing in the environment. Root cause of this shortcoming is that I need to have empathy towards others. The plan is to improve my cognitive skills which will include: Set a role model. There are a number of people I know who are naturally empathetic towards others. I will have an inner voice mapping my emotions or lack of them against those of the role models. It would be easy to emulate them initially whenever I feel emotionally blank. Self-motivation- I will reinforce my behavior by constantly conducting an inner conversation with myself, to help me manage challenges or difficult situations. Learning social cues - I will try to see my self as part of a larger social fabric and try to react to situations from community's point of view. Recognize facial expressions, tone of voice and gestures and anticipate other person's state of mind. Others too- Try to understand from others perspective too and see if my state of mind is broad enough to take a just decision or too narrow that I am considering only myself in the outcome. Listen sympathetically - Not to interrupt or contradict till the speaker has finished and his /her message is understood completely. Maintain eye contact, gesture warmly and keep relaxed at all times. The key to know if my plan has worked is the enhancement of following traits in my personality: More responsible and assertive without being abusive More popular and dynamic Enjoy meeting others and help in solving their problems Greater understanding of others perspective and being more concerned Better at resolving conflicts, rather than being the cause of conflicts. Subordinates become friendlier and confide in me. The basic competency needed to develop empathy is self awareness. It means that I have to have the ability to recognize my own feelings. I have to be open and clear about my emotional reactions to different situations. I have to be motivated to develop empa

The artistic relationship between Edgar Degas and Mary Cassatt Essay

The artistic relationship between Edgar Degas and Mary Cassatt - Essay Example Conversely, Mary Cassatt emphasized on painting about social as well as the private lives of women in the society. In her works, Mary Cassatt is particular on the intimate bond manifested between the mother and the child2. The two artists that is, Edgar Degas and Mary Cassatt had distinct relationships in arts besides their actual relationships. The relationships are attributed by the themes onto which each of them emphasized in their pieces of art. However, the subject has an element of complexity in its demonstration and a critical analysis of the content of the artistic works would perform a fundamental role of exposing the sense of relationship in this scenario. The two artists base their works on main issues occurring in the society. It is obvious that the works displayed by the two artists are related in various perspectives1. Therefore, this research seeks to establish the relationship between Edgar Degas and Mary Cassatt artistic works. Throughout this exercise there will be analysis of four different artistic pieces from the two artists. There will be a selection of two paintings of Edgar Degas and two pieces from Mary Cassatt pieces of art. The first pair of artistic pieces to be analyzed for relationship in this scenario are Ballerina and Lady with a Fan by Edgar Degas and At the Opera by Mary Cassatt. In the Ballerina and Lady with a Fan, Edgar Degas portrays a woman sitting in front in a balcony watching dancers perform. This painting exhibits an exceptional proficiency possessed by the artist. The painting manifests three levels of viewing3. In the first instance, the viewers of the painting find themselves fixed in the position of the actual audience in the theatre. The second level now directly concerns the image and there is a woman displayed as one of the audience who is also watching the performance by the dancers. The third level depicts the actual performing dancers in the stage and of whom all the attention is geared. Edgar utilizes differ ent artistic styles in ensuring an effective visualization by the appreciators. There is effective harmonization of the light, color and shadows. All these attributes to the observable quality appreciated in the painting2. There is a distinction between the leader of the dance group who is in a light orange dress and is in front of the other dancers who are in green gowns with red stripes4. In Mary Cassatt’s, At the Opera the image also dominate a significant portion of the painting. The piece exhibits a woman seated alone in the balcony to observe performance in a theatre. The woman has a long black dress that covers her body properly from the lower part of her neck till the feet. The proper woman also has gloves on her hands and a black hat. These leaves only the face and few parts of the hands exposed for the public view. The woman has a pair of binoculars with which she uses to capture the performance explicitly in the hall4. According to the prevailing trends of this per iod, the paintings have a close relationship ranging from the way they are exposed to the actual meanings depicted by the pieces. The two paintings relate specifically in dominance, meaning and spectatorship. In the first painting and that is Ballerina and Lady with a Fan, we can consider the spectatorship and we can endeavor querying the exposure of the woman and her capacity to regulate or dispute the situation5. The woman seated at the balcony is viewed by other spectators most of which are men. The woman

Ethnicity And Police Essay Example for Free

Ethnicity And Police Essay September 4, 2005 six days after hurricane Katrina devastated the city of New Orleans, six New Orleans police officers loaded into the back of a Budget rental truck and stormed the Danziger Bridge in the eastern area of the city. The officers were responding to a call of shots fired and an officer was down, in reality police officers escorting a civilian convoy on the I-10 high rise made a distress call over the police radio of shots fired on the Danziger Bridge and made the impression that an officer was down. A group of at least nine officers were in the truck all from the 7th districts make shift station. Claimed once they approached the bridge they received gun fire from civilians, which made them open fire. Civilians on the bridge claim they were ambushed by the officers in the truck. The officers shot eight unarmed citizens fatally wounding two 17 year old James Brissette and 40 year old Robert Madison who was mentally disabled. The officers were wrong in doing so, because they did not verify any citizens carrying weapons nor did they identify themselves as police officers. The officers opened fire on the civilians under the assumption they were carrying weapons. By doing so the officers did not follow standard procedures (Nola, 2005). The New Orleans Police Department investigated the shootings internally, but victims of the shootings felt that justice was not served. The Bartholomew and Madison families who were the victims along with an outcry from citizens of New Orleans led the Federal Bureau of investigations to investigate the city’s police department. During the federal probe of the shootings, evidence was found that officers were not justified in the death of the two individuals, and the internal probe by investigators attempted to cover the evidence. Two years after the incident officers were arrested and indicted on murder charges, but the charges were dropped due to mishandling by the dist rict attorney’s office. Two weeks later the Civil Rights Division of the United States Department of Justice and the Federal Bureau of Investigations  took over the case. Robert Faulcon along with five other police officers faced charges ranging from corruption, violation of civil rights, and weapons charges. Before the case went to trial the federal prosecution offered a series of plea bargains to the suspected officers because the case had been â€Å"cold† when they received it. On August 5, 2011 nearly six years after hurricane Katrina struck the city of New Orleans Robert Faulcon appeared in federal court, United States district judge Kurt Engelhart presided over the hearings (FBI, 2012). Robert Faulcon who fatally shot Robert Madison in the back with a shotgun testified that he never saw anyone on the bridge point a gun or fire at him, and that he never identified himself as a police officer or told Madison to stop. Two innocent people died and several others were wounded that day on the Danziger Bridge by the police officers whose jobs were to protect their lives of the innocent. After testimonies from prosecution and defense the former officers were found guilty on all charges. Robert Faulcon was sentenced to sixty five years in federal prison. Sergeant Kenneth Brown was sentenced to 40 years in prison, Sergeant Robert Gesivius also received 40 years in prison, and Officer Anthony Villavaso received a 38 year sentence. Sergeant Authur Kaufman who was the lead investigator on the case, received a six year sentence for covering up the crimes during the investigation, and one officer was exonerated of the charges (Chicago Citizen, 2010). An attorney for the Department of Justice described the case as â€Å"one of the most significant police misconduct incidents since the Rodney King beating.† The New Orleans police department has a long history of corruption and violence. With the prosecution of these officers citizens hope that this will end the final chapter. And that they can begin to trust the officers sworn to protect them. References (2010, December 15). Former New Orleans Police Officer Sentenced for Role in Danziger Bridge Shootings. Chicago Citizen Chatham Southeast Edition. p. 3. (September 4, 2005). Police shoot eight on New Orleans bridge. Associated press. Retrieved from. http://www.nola.com/katrina/index.ssf/2005/09/police_shoot_8_on_new_orleans_b

Ensuring Effective Assessment In Psychiatry And Mental Health Nursing Essay

Ensuring Effective Assessment In Psychiatry And Mental Health Nursing Essay In the domain of psychiatry and specifically in the area of mental health nursing, it is essential that an early, quality assessment with accurate information is gathered about the patient. Psychotic, neurotic and depressed behaviours are all different. Sullivan (1990) makes it clear that poor assessment and/or misinterpretation of a patients presentation can be critical to their well-being and subsequent treatment or therapies. Bearing this in mind, it becomes vital that the mental health nurse is adept at conducting effective assessments. This account considers such exemplars through witnessing a one to one interview in an acute unit, will analyse and reflect on those skills employed to assess the bio-psycho-social needs of the patient and include references to clarify evidence-based practise. In keeping with the Code of Confidentiality as is required by (An Bord Altranais (ABA) 2000), relating to client confidentiality, names and locations involved have been changed. Thus, the client will be called Mary. The Gibbs cycle (1988), is used as a reflection tool to create a structured account of the discussion, and clearly show that true reflection in practise has occurred during its research. Mary is a 38-year-old married female depressive and more recently has had a secondary diagnosis of Anorexia. She has been a frequent patient over ten years to the acute ward where I was on placement. Mary was assigned a nurse whom I shadowed during this time to make my observations who was very helpful and pointed out pertinent features of mental health care practice to me. Mary refuses to eat and drinks only when her body demands it. When unfamiliar people are near, she gives distressed cries. She is on high protein fluids and is weighed every few days. I was shown how to observe her eating pattern and left to perform my task.  I was embarrassed and horrified that she wouldnt eat for me and as she wouldnt talk I had no idea whether she liked what was offered to her. I felt out of my depth and didn t know what to do. She would scream and shout out at me and Im not sure whether this was her way of trying to  communicate with me. I felt I should be doing more for her but not sure what. I informed my preceptor that she would not eat what was offered and was told not to worry he would try again, she turned her head. I felt totally useless as I could see this lady was fading away from lack of food but as she refused to eat there wasnt much I could do and as she would not talk  I didnt know how to communicate with her. Deliberate self-harm may refer to any act of non-accidental, self-inflicted injury.   It covers a broad spectrum of behaviour from successful suicides to non-fatal overdoses or self-inflicted wounding, which may have been previously classed as attempted suicide McAlaney ( 2004). Whilst Marys medical condition was not assessed as being immediately life-threatening her psychological presentation gave the nurse no other alternative than to contact the on call senior psychiatric house officer to conduct an assessment (bio/soc/psy evaluation) of her mental state. It must contain a detailed and precise record of what happened and any answers given to often very structured forms of psychological questioning. Thompson and Mathias (2000) likewise describe the process as acquiring information about a person or situation that may include a description of the persons wants and ambitions. Although I was not allowed to sit in with this interview I was fortunate to be present when Marys assigned nurse was talking to Mary on a one to one basis. Before entering the room where the assessment was to take place, I obtained the required consent from Mary (A.B.A. 2000) to be present. Control of the environment and assuring privacy can be central to successful assessment. Despite not being specifically designed for the assessment of distressed patients the nurse quickly checked for comfort, that chairs were the same height, distanced suitably from each other to avoid invasion of personal space yet allowing easy discussion. The nurse remained at the same level as his patient at all times and practised positive body language; leaning slightly forward in his chair, maintaining an open posture and remaining relaxed throughout. These characteristics have been well documented by Farley (1992). He further ensured that Mary had sufficient water and nutrition prior to the assessment- as far as she was willing that day considering her condition. The important thing was to have Mary at ease. Thompson and Mathias (2000) suggest that careful attention should be given to these points.   He then asked Mary how she would prefer to be addressed. Holland and Hogg (2001) reported that professionals must not assume that everyone wishes to be known by their listed name.   This clarification promotes affability as well as professionalism.  Ã‚   Brief periods of general chat opened the session to set an ambient atmosphere for the interview. This introductory phase is also referred to as the orientation or pre-helping phase. Forchuk (2002), states that Health professionals with well-honed listening skills, empathy and who display understanding allow patients to express their concerns, discuss options and build trust. The nurse interviewing Mary didnt rush the interview, let silence prevail for her to consider her answers and further supported Mary with encouraging statements to draw information such as, Tell me a little more what makes you feel this wayà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Martin (1995), concludes silences actually maximise interaction with a patient. At this stage of the process Mary tentatively began disclosing some information to the nurse and it could be noticed that a therapeutic relationship was beginning to formulate. Actually engaging in conversation whether disclosure or otherwise was a big step for Mary.   The works of Burnard (1999) further promoted this observation. Mary seemed to be doing most of the talking while the nurse responded with active listening. Listening with attention and commitment is a caring response and forms the basis of all effective communication. Eye contact and continuation sounds, body language and gesture all gave safe non-verbal messages and encouraged continued conversation.   Brereton (1995) has identified that listening skills dominate talking skills; in the context of a psychiatric assessment this showed that a clients condition gives added value if the doctor is able to give time to the patient to express herself rather than give her (the doctor) interpretation of what she may have been trying to say. Mary was now helping herself and seemed a little relieved to be sharing her thoughts at this time.   Marys mood was important to the assessment. The nurse identified her presentation as familiar with that of depression and  her diagnosis was supported by her confirmation of not wanting to eat or drink and feeling uncomfortable around people. She became distressed and was unable to maintain eye contact. These symptoms are classic of the depressed patient Barker (1997). To support this diagnosis, both open and closed questions were necessary. A closed question directly requires a yes or no response but does not necessarily invite any elaboration. Barker (1997) suggests that closed questions are appropriate in the initial stages of the assessment to establish simple facts and clarification as they put fewer demands on the patient. In this assessment the nurse had managed to establish rapport quite quickly and asked more open questions (using how/why) like I am interested that you say you dont want to eat any more, can you tell me a little more why you feel like this? as opposed to, Are you eating well? but Mary began to withdraw. This cue told the experienced nurse to hold back and it began to identify the content of her thoughts and he noted the responses discreetly whilst attempting to retain eye contact with her as much as possible. The process of maintaining eye contact was further used to examine her ability to reciprocate. Nelson-Jones, (2002) mentions that the inability of patients to maintain prolonged eye contact would indicate he/she may be in a withdrawn state or feel uncomfortable in his/her condition. Barker (1997) further stated that over enthusiasm about eye contact might cause an aggressive or confrontational experience. The use of this method was appropriate as the assessment progressed. The nurse summarised in terms that Mary could understand, and identified key points discussed, gaining Marys affirmation that her interpretation was valid. Nelson-Jones (2002) said this process gives the patient a clear feeling of acknowledgement from another of their deepest feelings while  aiding the recovery process. The skills used in Mental Health  assessments emphasise the need for a holistic approach in the work of the Mental Health  Nurse. There is no standard format or panacea in the profession of Mental Health Nursing; the many tools and strategies used throughout the process depend fundamentally on the skill of treating each person as an individual, with their own set of needs and concerns as paramount. The assessment witnessed demonstrated that combining these skills promotes a good rapport with the patient and most importantly getting a full picture that can be interpreted and shared with the multi disciplinary team for the onward process of the care pathway approach. I have discovered that being objectively caring and non-judgmental in assessing the current situation at presentation is a key attribute in assessment skill. Often when interviewing known clients it can be difficult to avoid simply replicating their previous diagnosis or being frightened by the available evidence. I have further reflected on the necessity to question a patient using inter personal skills and effective non-verbal stimuli to encourage exploration and expression of their feelings, sometimes when they are particularly vulnerable, in order to help them. Academic research and observed practise-based experience can help the development of these skills. I have further learnt that people in crisis need continual support and assistance through their acute phase. This will make me more aware of my communication skills.

History Essays French Revolution Violence

History Essays French Revolution Violence French Revolution Violence When historians and others engage in discussion of the French Revolution, they often begin with discussions about why the French people became unhappy and turned towards popular violence as an effective means of dismantling the Ancient Regime. Popular violence became an enduring form of achieving the population’s goals, just as it helped to bringing about a violent abolition to France’s monarchy on August 10, 1792. The French Revolution’s aims however, were not solely focused on replacing the King of France, Louis XVI with an alternative government, but also to completely recreate French Society. The events that occurred following August 4, 1789, were matters focused on religion and politics, and set in motion the Revolution detaching itself from the liberal ideas originally intended for a constitutional monarch, and instead heading down the path of violence and bloodshed. At the heart of the problem, is that the revolution collapsed from within, because of a document presented to a stunned population. This document, the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, created the French Catholic Church as a branch of the new revolutionary government. Previously, the Church and State government had acted in synchronicity. People throughout France were unhappy with this fundamental change to their Church, and millions began to desert the ideas of the revolution for the sake of their religion. Ultimately, this would lead to an escalation of violence that would cause the French Revolution to become progressively bloodier. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy introduced a division between Church and State and the Revolution in such a way that it increased the level of violence and executions to harrowing levels. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy was proclaimed by the National Assembly on July 12, 1790 (Desan 5). The document was the product of the ecclesiastical body of the assembly (Desan 5). The impetus behind its creation was to create a document that would add a â€Å"rationalized structure† to the Church that would cause the Church to operate separate from the government, and to eliminate its financial discretion over the people of France (Desan 5). The document reflects the thinking of the assembly’s ecclesiastical body by reason of what it attempted to accomplish, but it reflects the inexperience of the group in matters of politics. The document essentially turned the bishops and priests of France into state employees because it created their responsibility to the state where none had previously existed (Desan 5). This might have met the satisfaction of the low echelon church priests, but it would not have been to the satisfaction of the bishops. Most of the bishops in France were from families who had previously been members of the Second Estate. The document would have essentially not just the authority that they exerted over the populations residing within their parishes, but it would greatly impair their relationship with the Papacy and, in some cases, mitigate the ambitions of the bishops. As state employees, the bishops would have been reported to the government on their communications with Rome. It would have been necessary to discuss applicable Church doctrine with the state official or department that was put in charge of the state employees. More importantly, however, is that the Civil Constitution of the Clergy was a blow to the Church’s finances. It eliminated certain sources of revenues, such as the fees charged by the Church to perform certain services in the community (Desan 5). Suzanne Desan (1990) states that while the bishops and clerics were probably willing to work with the revolutionaries to make the Constitution work for them, the vast majority of the clergy were fundamentally against it (Dessan 5). To some extent, Desan says, the bishops and clerics agreed with the reform represented by the Constitution (Desan 5). However, they still could not take affirmative action in that direction without guidance from Rome (Desan 5). While everyone waited for Rome to respond, the assembly grew impatient and acted without Rome’s authority or guidance and imposed the Constitution on the Catholic bishops and clergy (Desan 5). Whether or not the assembly predicted that Rome would withhold its approval is unclear. However, the events as they unfolded might suggest that Rome recognized that the potential for division amongst the revolutionary forces if the Pope withheld comment and let the events unfold as they would. The assembly also attempted to force the bishops and clergy to take an oath to the document, the King (who sanctioned the document), and to France. It is here that it might appear, as Desan suggests as well, that the French Revolution began to go wrong (Desan 6). â€Å"The incidence of oath taking was highest in the center, the Ile-de-France, and the southeast. In those regions later known for a high level of religious practicethe northwest, northeast/east, and the Massif Centralwell over half the clergy refused the oath. 8 Historians have frequently seen the requirement of the oath as one of the critical errors of the Revolution, for it provoked unending controversies among the clergy and laity alike and persuaded many villagers to oppose the Revolution (Desan 6).† There were conflicts within the assembly on the document as well. F. A. Aulard says that Robespierre and the ecclesiastics differed because Robespierre held that religion was an individual choice. He envisioned the government of France as one that was non-religious and focused on matters of state. The idea that the people of France would pursue their religious choices and obligations independent of their state responsibilities was truly revolutionary (Aulard 45). This was very much a Girondist sentiment, and quite different than that held by Couthon. It was Couthon who wanted to see a religious state where the â€Å"Supreme Being,† was at that center of State and Church policy. With that, The Civil Constitution of the Clergy was intended to deal with what the revolutionaries perceived to be a dangerous situation with which they were faced (Thompson 1952 22). The Catholic Church was not just the wealthiest institution in France, it was also the most powerful (22) The revolutionaries were faced with a need to take that power away from the church, but in a way in which the National Assembly would be able to absorb and make use of the power themselves (22). The holdings owned by the Church were rich and extensive in land, buildings and endowments (22). The wealth held by the Church was badly needed by the revolutionaries in order to continue moving towards their democracy. That too remained precarious, because in the first year of the revolution there was what anyone should have anticipated as chaos as people sought to bring to a violent end France’s monarch and wealthy (22). In the second year, the year in which the Constitution of the Clergy was created, there was a need to create infrastructure within the revolutionary government; as well as the desire by the vying parties to gain leadership roles in the new government (22). To allow the Catholic Church to continue to hold greater wealth and power than the revolutionaries was contrary to their movement, and it could not be allowed to happen (22). This is the way in which the National Assembly was divided in religious ideology. The Jacobins were philosophical in nature, and, as reflected in Robespierre’s ideas, saw the state independent of religious influence. Robespierre especially wanted France independent of Catholic Church influence because it stood in stark opposition to the ideological state he envisioned. Regardless of Robespierre’s aspirations for France, â€Å"The republic, once it was Montagnard, became a religion; it had its martyrs and its saints (Aulard 125).† It is at this point where the assembly began to divide, with the Jacobin and the other ideologies separate sides. This division arose out of the Constitution of the Clergy because it revised the Church in policy, and it revised the relationship the Church had with the state and with the French people. Considering that these factions existed within the assembly prior to the Constitution being imposed upon the State, it might be concluded that some of the assembly members saw potential conflict as predictable because of the relationship that the provinces had with the Church. The conflict would present for the assembly members the opportunity they needed to wrest control of France away from the Jacobins. Since Robespierre was in large part behind the Constitution of the Clergy, it was predictable, too, that the response of the people to the altered relationship between themselves and the Church would be a mitigating factor in Robespierre’s popularity. Robespierre had been raised a Catholic, but his goal was, Thompson says, to unite the country in faith if not religion â€Å"freed from Catholic dogma and clerical fanaticism (Thompson 24).† Robespierre was at heart a classical Republican, dedicated to equality, a constitutionally guaranteed order of freedoms and a document that served as a direction for the government. In dire need of cash, and on behalf of the state, Robespierre began to auction off confiscated church properties â€Å"bit by bit (Thompson 25).† The state also devised a scheme that was innovative for its time, allowing people to buy in co-owners of national properties (Thompson 25). The government program created a new class of landowner, and, more importantly, that their newfound status and land came out of the revolution meant that those people felt a loyalty to the government, and to Robespierre. It meant, too, that they would fight to prevent the nobility and royalty from returning to their previous status in France, because it would mean they would lose their newfound positions and property (Thompson 25). The Civil Constitution of the Clergy served as the basis for allegations that it was atheist in nature, and that was a document intended to further the cause and position of France’s Jewish population (Van Kley 1994 121). These two elements served as the prongs with which to separate the revolutionists, and to fuel the Church’s own quest to regain some of the power it lost to the government by the Constitution of the Clergy. By late 1791 the Constitution of the Clergy began showing the cracks of its weakness. Many people believed that the traditional Church had a place in the new government of France (Van Kley 416). As unrest spread, more attention was being focused on the Civil Constitution as undermining the people of France. That rhetoric, encouraged by Robespierre’s enemies, permeated the minds of the people who associated with the document with an anti-faith notion and with officially empowering Jews in a way that had never been done before in France. Because of this, the people of France grew restless, became agitated, and began to turn again to popular violence as a means of achieving their goals (Van Kley 417). France’s population in the provinces was feeling especially agitated and defiant. â€Å"Religious rioters mixed the sacred and the violent in powerful ways (Desan 1990 165).† After this point, the Civil Constitution of the Clergy began to fall apart with what it meant to accomplish. Disgruntled Catholics who were convinced that the revolutionary government was moving towards atheism grew angry, and mob mentality permeated the countryside. Robespierre’s government based on philosophy, which left room for the monarchy had role as did the Church began crumbling under the weight of the very document intended to help ensure a government representing greater freedoms for everyone in France. Rather than swear an oath under the Civil Constitution, a majority of bishops in France had taken flight or gone into hiding. This break in relationship with the people with whom they had built constituencies left a void in the lives of those French people who had close ties to their Church and religious leaders. Albert Soboul (1988) says that enlightened reformism does not maintain the same shape in the sovereign setting (Soboul 2). That remains true even today (Soboul 2). Suggesting that Robespierre’s ambitions for France never took the form necessary to withstand the trials and tribulations of church and state. The research of John Markoff (1996) involved creating tables for violence that Markoff directly relates to the Constituion of the Clergy (231). Violence against clerics in religious events was 58%. Violence against â€Å"old regime roles† of priest, bishop, canon, and monks was at 7% in connection with religious events, and 18% against baillages in connection with religious events (Markoff 231). Violent acts committed against nonjurors in connection with religious events was 14% (Markoff 231). Violent acts against nonjurors bailliages in connection with religious events was 34% (Markoff 231). Violence resulting in the damage to constitutionals during religious events was 26%, and those events against the constitutionals associated with bailliages was 20% (Markoff 231). The percentage to monasteries from violence or even total destruction of the monastery was 18%, and the events of violence damaging or destroying monasteries in connection with billiages was 36% (Markoff 231). Across Markoff’s chart, the events of violence and the destruction associated with the violence was greater than those incidences of violence associated with non-religious events. Markoff found that the attacks by the people related to anti-tax events were 25%, while the attacks on anti-tax ballialages was 40% (Markoff 234). Attacks on person or property of tax collectors was 30% s compared to 41% on tax bailliages (Markoff 234). Violent attacks on â€Å"all indirect taxes,† were highest of the overall anti-tax related violence (although Markoff does not define those any clearer) at 61% for anti-tax evens and 66% for anti-tax billiages events of violence (Markoff 234). The figures are consistent, and the incidence of violence that Markoff has identified as arising out of those events directly related to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy are more numerous than the events he identified as related to anti-tax incidences of violence. Markoff says that the sources he relied upon for his information in compiling the figures are reliable and thorough in recounting the events he has charted (Markoff 235). His conclusion is that the violence of the revolution was a greater reflection of the change in the relationship between the church-state-population than it was about taxes. It would suggest, too, that the pre-Civil Constitution of the Clergy relationship of between the church-state and people was such that it might even have served as a circumvention of public reaction to other matters, such as taxes. Markoff also cites documentation from Philippe Goujard which demonstrates that the rural petitioners expressed sentiments indicating that they respected the taxes but did not support the revolutionary government’s enforcement of seigneurial rights (Markoff 235). This would explain the higher percentage of attacks on local jails, police, military camps, or other type office during the post Civil Constitution of the Clergy period. Markoff cites Eugen Weber, who held that it was late in the nineteenth century that French peasantry began to look beyond their own parish and be interested in the politics and events going on elsewhere (Markoff 241). Markoff says that his work has demonstrated that it was much earlier than Weber had originally believed, and that it was really the degree to which the peasantry expressed an interest that Weber was detecting (Markoff 241). Whereas, Markoff says, his events tables show that the peasantry was responding earlier (Markoff 241). As Desan points out, there was a difference in perspective held by those people in the cities and the rural peasants (Desan 123-124). For Catholics during the Directory, liberty meant the freedom of religious expression (Desan 123-124). It is clear that the goals of the rural countryside were not as philosophical as those of the Parisians. That it was widely miscalculated as to what the rural populations were most passionate about, and that the religious relationship the rural people had with their local parishes went a long to satisfying their total philosophical curiosity. The response of the rural peasantry was one that became increasingly violent, and directed towards individuals that Markoff describes as â€Å"frequent mismatch of clerical and communal political leanings, violence against clerics rose sharply (Markoff 506).† The likelihood, Markoff says, of personal in religious clashes is, as demonstrated by the statistics cited above, much higher than any other issue arising out of the revolution (Markoff 506). There were surely to be people who anticipated some of the reactions that led to more and more violent responses on the part of the rural peasantry, and who hoped to exploit that violence to their own benefit. However, it would be a fair conclusion to say that based on the evidence presented by Markoff in his statistical tables of violence and events, that post Civil Constitution of the Clergy, as a result of that document, by way of the changes that it ushered in, the counterrevolution was indeed much more violent than it might have otherwise been had not those changes in the relationship between the people of France and their parishes taken place. Works Cited Aulard, A. The French Revolution: A Political History 1789-1804. Trans. Bernard Miall. Vol. 2. London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1910. Aston, Nigel, ed. Religious Change in Europe, 1650-1914: Essays for John McManners. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997. Desan, Suzanne. Reclaiming the Sacred: Lay Religion and Popular Politics in Revolutionary France. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990. Markoff, John. The Abolition of Feudalism: Peasants, Lords, and Legislators in the French Revolution. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1996. Soboul, Albert. Understanding the French Revolution. New York: International Publishers, 1988. Thompson, J. M. Robespierre and the French Revolution. London: English Universities Press, 1952. Van Kley, Dale, ed. The French Idea of Freedom: The Old Regime and the Declaration of Rights of 1789. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994.